Gender & Social Reproduction in Egypt Research Paper

Introduction

Egypt is one of many countries in the world, which have already experienced considerable changes in resolving the issues of gender and social reproduction. The emergence of women’s activism campaigns help to rise public awareness on sexuality and biological reproduction of men and women in Egypt. Gender studies of Egyptian society place emphasis on the role of patriarchy and its impact on gender and social reproduction, which contributes to the growth of gender oppression.¹ Gender oppression can be found within  family relationships and family dynamics. In fact, social reproduction stands for the various social processes that contribute to the formation of human relations and to the establishment of social institutions which affect social life and guarantee human security. In Egypt, social reproduction is based on the cultural and social norms and values.  Gender stands for the classification of humans based on sex. There is much evidence taken from academic sources that social reproduction and gender are closely linked not only because of  biological and generic inheritance, but also because of  cultural inheritance. Reproduction played an important role in the “formation of a national modernity in Egypt”.² In Egyptian society, reintroduction and reproductive politics can be viewed as the key aspects of the nationalist ideology. It has been found that “population discourse in 20th century Egypt normalized monogamous sexuality within the parameters of modern family life – bourgeois companionate marriage, small family size and middle class hygiene – while organizing reproduction within a framework of social reform”.³ Hence, women in Egypt are involved in the regulated reproduction system, which is under the control of male population.

_____________________________

  1. Omnia El Shakry, Great Social Laboratory : Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt. (Standford University Press, 2007), 133.
  2. Ibid.
  3. Ibid, 135.

 “Social reproduction is defined within feminist theory as more than production in the Marxist sense”.4 Societal reproduction involves a number of concepts and relevant activities, such as the organization of production, social reproduction, gender perpetuation, and the continuation of class relations. In Egyptian society, gender and social reproduction are closely interrelated because of the dominant role of men in resolving the issues related to sexuality and biological reproduction. The major goal of this research paper is to discuss the relations between gender and social reproduction in Egyptian society, placing emphasis on sexuality and biological reproduction between man and women in Egypt.

The Relations between Gender and Social Reproduction in Egyptian Society

Gender and social reproduction in Egyptian society were made up by macro-historical context.

Both gender reproduction and social reproduction are shaped by the system of patriarchy, which fosters  gender oppression and violence against women. It is necessary to place emphasis on the family dynamics and family bonds to have a better understanding of the symbolic order of the Arab families. Recent studies show that recent changes in attitudes toward gender oppression and violence against women in Egypt. Researchers state that “rural women are particularly disadvantaged in these situations”.5 There are many victims of domestic violence in Egyptian society, especially in socially deprived areas of the country, who need legal and social support. Researchers assume that “women’s empowerment in the economic and educational spheres may help to achieve progress in gender equality and therefore reduce violence against women”.6

___________________________

  • Barbara Laslett & Johanna Brenner, “Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives,” Annual Review of Sociology, 15 (1989): 381.
  • Ambrosetti, Elena; Abu Amara, Nisrin;  Condon, Stéphanie. “Gender-Based Violence in Egypt: Analyzing Impacts of Political Reforms, Social, and Demographic Change,” Violence Against Women, 19, no. 3 (2013): 414
  • Ibid.

 However, there is much evidence that better economic and educational opportunities provided to women in Egypt do not provide adequate protection of women’s rights and do not help to eliminate domestic violence. This fact means that women gender relations in Egypt are affected by the modernization of Egyptian social and cultural norms, which create both positive and negative conditions for social reproduction. Considering the status of women in Egypt, it is possible to find the positive consequences of the implementation of legislation. Nevertheless, women in Egypt are dependent on the rules promoted by state system of patriarchy and family system of patriarchy.7

Moreover, it is necessary to consider the differences between European and Egyptian gender and social reproduction, placing emphasis on the colonial and post-colonial periods of social development. The issues of race, class, and gender in Egypt of the colonial period affect the current perception of gender and social reproduction in Egyptian society. The gender identity of the modern Egyptians is shaped by the system of patriarchy. From a historical perspective, Egypt was the first Arab country colonized by the Europeans, namely by Napoleon Bonaparte. However, the British colonial rule in Egypt (1882-1936) “inaugurated widespread transformations” which had a strong impact on social development of the country.8 At the same time, the independence from Britain or the British colonialism led to new orientations in politics and social life in Egypt. A wide range of social reforms were developed and implemented to affect social reproduction to a great extent.9

Furthermore, social reproduction requires considering the  issues of gender and class exclusion.

__________________________________

  • Ambrosetti, Elena; Abu Amara, Nisrin;  Condon, Stéphanie. “Gender-Based Violence in Egypt: Analyzing Impacts of Political Reforms, Social, and Demographic Change,” Violence Against Women, 19, no. 3 (2013): 414
  • Omnia El Shakry, Great Social Laboratory : Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt. (Standford University Press, 2007), 12.
  • Ibid.

The Egyptian system can serve the role of the site for social reproduction. Many Egyptian women from low-income households are prone to class exclusion. This leads to the growth of gender stereotypes in all areas of Egyptian society. Women are perceived as agents of class reproduction for the reasons they lack equal access to employment, education, health care and other areas of human activity.10

As a matter of fact, the concepts of gender and social reproduction help to better understand the established relations between men and women in Egypt. It has been found that different historical, social and cultural factors have a considerable impact on the current position of women in Egyptian society.  It is assumed that gender relations and social reproduction in Egypt “were both shaped by macro-historical processes and shaped the processes”.11 Applying the feminist theory, it is possible to assess the effects of social reproduction on socialization of children and the care of the elderly. Actually, “Social reproduction includes the organization of sexuality, biological reproduction, and how food, clothing, and shelter are made available”.12 It is necessary to understand that the occurance of social reproduction within the social context and the family units contributes to the formation of social identity.  In Egypt, the distribution of the  key duties and responsibilities with the family units has its impact on the economic system, the growth and development of the system of markets, community formation and development and on the state reforms. In Egyptian society, many women have constructed their own worlds of activity based on the assigned duties and responsibilities in the family units and in the social context.  According to the modernization theory, “the institutional location of the tasks of social reproduction and the structural effects on the family and gender relations affect social development”.13

_________________________________

  1. Jorg Gertel & Petra Kuppinger, “Space, social reproduction and food security in Cairo/Egypt,” GeoJournal, 34, no. 3 (1994): 277.
  2. Barbara Laslett & Johanna Brenner, “Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives,” Annual Review of Sociology, 15 (1989): 381.
  3. Ibid.

In fact, the history of family relations in Egypt describes a wide range of various strategies that  provide a clear distinction between gender-related activities. The family organization is based on the properly developed rules, norms and values. Men are presented as income producers, while women are presented as caretakers, who are involved in child bearing and child rearing. The key role in family organization is played by the widely accepted in Egypt patriarchal authority and religious doctrine. There are certain differences in family relations, motherhood practices and sexuality issues between upper class and working class women in Egypt. There is much evidence that working class women need more social protection than women who perform their duties as wives and mothers. Recent studies point out to the fact that “new developments in gender relations are due to sex as well as economics and the institutionalization of these changes results in constraints and opportunities for women”.14

From a historical perspective, it seems clear that consumerism and transformation of the Arab culture lead to changing attitudes toward sexuality, gender, and bioogical reproduction. The existance of certain stereotypes in terms of gender roles means that the impact of global lifestyles on family organiztaion, family structure and private life is really huge. In Egypt, local culture has adapted to global transformations leading to shifted family patterns.15 Nevertheless, the study of the roles of Egyptian women in class reproduction helps to determine theimpact of their activities on the promotion of child development. Women from upper class households tend to promote their children’s development in schoools and institutional settings. Howevere, women from working class households
face certain pressures in social reproduction because of the effects of class stratification.16

_________________________________

  1. Barbara Laslett & Johanna Brenner, “Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives,” Annual Review of Sociology, 15 (1989): 381.
  2. Ibid.
  3. Khalaf, Samir & Khalaf, Roseanne Saad. Arab society and culture : an essential reader. (Saqi, 2009), 304.

Sexuality and Biological Reproduction of Men and Women in Egypt

Male control of sexuality in Egyptian society affected the nature of biological reproduction.

This type of control can be viewed as a result of the functioning of the system of patriarchy. Men provide control over women’s choice of marriage. Actually, the elements of gender segregation play an important role in the formation of gender identity of the Egyptians. Actually,  “the modernization of reproduction was a crucial component of the nationalist ideology of social planning and scientific progress”.17 The historical context, which involved the independence of Egypt from Britain’s colonialism affected the relegation of reproduction to the domain of national politics. As a result, Egyptian women have experienced certain changes in perception of gender equality issues. The cases of  violence against women are addressed based on the established laws and regulations. The trends in addressing these issues require women to report violence and improve attitudes toward domestic abuse. The increased public awareness regarding this issue has affected the perception of sexuality and biological reproduction since the adoption of the laws that regulate family attitudes and relations between men and women.18

As a matter of fact, the study of sexuality issues in Egypt help to find differences between men and women in the social context. Due attention should be paid to access to food as the basic need of humans. Access to food in unequal in Egypt, especially in urban areas. “Urban life is a highly
interconnected historically developed web of social relations”.19 In the city of Cairo, Egypt, urban planning is associated with the needs of residents and addresses the issues of social reproduction. Low-income households have to spend more than half of their total  income on food. Social inequality and discrimination based on class are caused by social reproduction. The economic policies in Egypt has changed the position of men in the social context and their roles as the heads of the households. In the large cities of Egypt, men with low-income have low level of control over women. This fact means that the undermined male domination is cased by the negative economic policies which create a considerable gap between the personal incomes of men.20

_________________________________

  1. Jenny M. Stuber, Joshua Klugman & Caitlin Daniel, “Gender, Social Class, and Exclusion: Collegiate Peer Cultures and Social Reproduction,” Sociological Perspectives, 54, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 448.
  2. Omnia El Shakry, Great Social Laboratory : Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt. (Standford University Press, 2007), 201.
  3. Ibid.

Furthermore, the issues of sexuality and biological reproduction of men and women should be explored in the light of contemporary policies. Currently, the main idea of the government of Egypt is to ensure institutional control over women’s reproduction. The initiation of the state family planning program of 1966 was targeted at reduction of fertility and providing control over population growth. It has been found that “Egypt’s national family planning program was a cornerstone of Gamal Abdel Nasser regime’s state building program and plan for the development of a society based on the principles of Arab socialism”.21 The government of Egypt paid due attention to resolving the problem of the crisis of overpopulation faced by Egyptian society. It was caused by the considerable decline in infant mortality rate and significant increase in fertility rates among women from rural areas and working class urban women. Actually, it becomes clear that the emergent policies take control over the women’s choices. Subordination of reproductive rights and individual choices can be viewed as violation of human rights. Hence, patriarchal social norms and political polices affect biological reproduction, although the IUD and the pills are commonly used in Egypt, while sterilization and abortion practices are considered to be illegal, excluding certain medical indications. Egypt’s Personal Status Law of 1979 highlights the rights of women regarding divorce issues, alimony process, child support services, and male polygamy.22

__________________________________

  1. Jorg Gertel & Petra Kuppinger, “Space, social reproduction and food security in Cairo/Egypt,” GeoJournal, 34, no. 3 (1994): 277.
  2. Ibid., 279.
  3. Laura Bier, “The Family Is a Factory”: Gender, Citizenship, and the Regulation of Reproduction in Postwar Egypt,” Feminist Studies, 36, no. 2 (2010): 404.

As a matter of fact, the reaction of Egyptian women to family planning policies promoted by the  government was not positive because women faced many challenges associated with reproductive politics. The principles of Arab society were reflected in the established rules and regulations. The new policies were aimed at fostering transformation of Egyptian society into an industrialized modern state. The problem of high fertility rates  could have a negative impact on the implementation of the proposed  reforms. Researchers highlight the effects of globalization on the economy of Egypt and restructuring of the reproductive regime. Egypt has a well-developed family planning program that has been implemented at the national level, but there is a need for strengthening of  the regulations because of the poor access to contraception. It is necessary to consider both cultural and structural influences on this problem. The state’s efforts to decrease the rate of fertility are improper to deal with the problems of poverty and gender inequality. Hence, gender inequality affects women’s  access to contraception which allows women to have fewer children and improve social conductions through family planning efforts. There is much evidence that birth control in Egypt was based on the “regime’s commitment to social transformation and construction of a socialist state”.23

_________________________________

  • Laura Bier, “The Family Is a Factory”: Gender, Citizenship, and the Regulation of Reproduction in Postwar Egypt,” Feminist Studies, 36, no. 2 (2010): 404.
  • Ibid., 406.

The state was focused on advocacy for contraceptive access as the government recognized its responsibility for providing birth control the way the Egypt’s government delivers social services to ensure protection of the vulnerable groups of population, including women and children.24  In general, the challenges associated with sexuality and biological reproduction are addressed by the state’s policies and programs to improve the health of the “national family”, while the Roman Catholic Church supports the initiatives aimed at caring for people.25

Conclusion

Thus, it is necessary to conclude that the relations between gender and social reproduction, such as sexuality and biological reproduction between man and women in Egypt, require special attention of the government and relevant international organizations. It stands to reason that gender and social reproduction in Egyptian society were made up by the macro-historical context and shaped by the patriarchal system. This research shows that the recent changes in Egyptian society has led to the changes in attitudes toward family planning and the role of women within the family unit and in the social context. The remarkable social changes in Egypt combined with the growth of population affect  family planning. The government policies forbid access to sterilization and abortion except for certain medical indications. All in all, the elimination of family subsidies and public support make the working class families feel the burden of high cost of living in the cities. Hence, it stands to reason that there is still conflict between modern social development and historically accepted, traditional roles for women in Egypt.

_________________________________

  • Laura Bier, “The Family Is a Factory”: Gender, Citizenship, and the Regulation of Reproduction in Postwar Egypt,” Feminist Studies, 36, no. 2 (2010): 406.
  • Ibid.

Bibliography

Ambrosetti, Elena; Abu Amara, Nisrin;  Condon, Stéphanie. “Gender-Based Violence in Egypt: Analyzing Impacts of Political Reforms, Social, and Demographic Change,” Violence Against Women, 19, no. 3 (2013): 400-421.

Bier, Laura. “The Family Is a Factory”: Gender, Citizenship, and the Regulation of Reproduction in Postwar Egypt,” Feminist Studies, 36, no. 2 (2010): 404-432.

El Shakry, Omnia. Great Social Laboratory : Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt. Standford University Press.  2007.

Gertel, Jorg & Kuppinger, Petra. “Space, social reproduction and food security in Cairo/Egypt,” GeoJournal, 34, no. 3 (1994): 277-286.

Khalaf, Samir & Khalaf, Roseanne Saad. Arab society and culture : an essential reader. Saqi, 2009.

Laslett, Barbara & Brenner, Johanna. “Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives,” Annual Review of Sociology, 15 (1989): 381-404.

Stuber, Jenny M., Klugman, Joshua & Daniel, Caitlin. “Gender, Social Class, and Exclusion: Collegiate Peer Cultures and Social Reproduction,” Sociological Perspectives, 54, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 431-451.

The terms offer and acceptance. (2016, May 17). Retrieved from

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]

"The terms offer and acceptance." freeessays.club, 17 May 2016.

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]

freeessays.club (2016) The terms offer and acceptance [Online].
Available at:

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]

"The terms offer and acceptance." freeessays.club, 17 May 2016

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]

"The terms offer and acceptance." freeessays.club, 17 May 2016

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]

"The terms offer and acceptance." freeessays.club, 17 May 2016

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]

"The terms offer and acceptance." freeessays.club, 17 May 2016

[Accessed: March 29, 2024]
close
Haven't found the right essay?
Get an expert to write you the one you need!
print

Professional writers and researchers

quotes

Sources and citation are provided

clock

3 hour delivery

person