Toxic Gases: Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, & Hydrogen Cyanide Research Paper

Introduction

Toxic gases also known as noxious gases are gases harmful to humans and other living organisms. They easily build up within confined spaces where these gases are used (safeopedia.com n.d). There are several types of toxic gases, but this paper would only be reviewing three Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen sulfide, and Hydrogen cyanide. Some of these gases are odorless and colorless, while others could have pungent odors, some may have an acute effect on humans while others could cause chronic symptoms. This paper would discuss the uses of these three gases, their harmful effects and ways of protection from these gases.

Carbon monoxide-Definition, uses, harmful effects and prevention

Definition

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas; this gas can cause sudden illness and death, it builds up in areas with little or no oxygen (Medlineplus.gov, 2016). Carbon monoxide (CO) is present in exhaust fumes from cars and trucks; it can also be found sometimes in smoke from fires. This is the most common cause of death by poisoning, and most patients die before they reach the hospital (Nicki, Brian, & Stuart, 2010).

Uses

Carbon monoxide is used in industries primarily as a source of energy, and as a reducing agent, as a reducing agent, it is used to convert naturally occurring metals into pure metals (scienceclarified.com, 2018). It has also been discovered that CO can be used for therapeutic purposes, carbon monoxide is produced endogenously through the activity of heme oxygenase 2 which is a constitutive enzyme and heme oxygenase 1 which is an inducible enzyme. These enzymes are responsible for heme catabolism (Motterlini & Otterbein, 2010). Due to this, CO is understood to be effective in reducing stress; it is also known to have endogenous anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and anti-proliferative effects. It is also known to be responsible for cell regeneration after injury (Motterlini & Otterbein, 2010; Knauert, Vangala, Haslip, & Lee, 2013).

Harmful effects

Carbon monoxide is a very dangerous gas and is toxic to humans; its toxicity arises by binding with hemoglobin and cytochrome oxidase inhibiting tissue oxygen delivery and cellular respiration. Carbon monoxide has a high affinity to bind with hemoglobin; CO competes with oxygen for binding to Hb displaces it and reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. On binding with Hb, it becomes carboxyhemoglobin thereby inhibiting the oxygen transport to tissues and cellular respiration (Rose et al., 2017).

Rose et al., (2017)

This diagram shows the normal process of oxygen transport on the blood and what happens when there is carbon monoxide poisoning and what happens in the mitochondria during cellular respiration for normal and CO poisoning.

The harmful effects of CO poisoning arise from these process; acute severe CO poisoning presents with a headache, nausea, irritability, weakness, and tachypnea. These symptoms, however, are non-specific, but a correct diagnosis can be gotten from previous exposure to gases leading up to the presentation of these symptoms. Other clinical features that may arise from acute poisoning include ataxia, nystagmus, drowsiness, hyperreflexia, these may progress to coma, convulsions, hypotension, respiratory distress, cardiovascular collapse and death (Nicki, Brian, & Stuart, 2010). Myocardial infarction can occur as well as cerebral edema which is a common manifestation, rhabdomyolysis also can occur, leading to myoglobinuria, and renal failure. Chronic conditions associated with CO poisoning are usually neuropsychiatric such as personality change, memory loss, and concentration impairment (Nicki, Brian, & Stuart, 2010).

Management and Prevention

The management of carbon monoxide poisoning involves immediate removal of patient form exposure and quick resuscitation. 100 percent Normobaric oxygen should be administered via a tightly fitting facemask to counter the effect of carboxyhemoglobin, the administration of oxygen reduces the half-life of carboxyhemoglobin from about 3-7 hours to about 40 minutes (Nicki, Brian, & Stuart, 2010). Hyperbaric oxygen reduces the half-life to about 20 minutes, but the use of hyperbaric oxygen should be measured to prevent oxygen toxicity.

Carbon monoxide poisoning can be prevented. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017), one can do it by servicing heated appliances, gas, oil or burning appliances every year, install a battery-operated CO detector in homes, avoid using generators, charcoal grill, camp stove, inside the home, garage, or basement, avoid running a car or truck in the garage attached to the house, avoid heating the house with gas cookers.

Hydrogen Cyanide-Definition, Uses, harmful Effects, and Prevention

Definition

Hydrogen cyanide is a colorless, very harmful gas; it has a distinctive bitter almond odor often described as musty old sneakers smell. However, some people cannot detect this odor, and it does indicate a warning on any hazardous concentration level (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). It is considered a chemical asphyxiant as it also competes with oxygen distribution in the body. This table shows the physical and chemical data of hydrogen cyanide as cited by the National Research Council, 2009 for Budvari et al.:

Parameters Values
Synonyms Formonitrile, hydrocyanic acid, prussic acid
Molecular Formula HCN
Structure H−C≡N
Molecular Weight 27.03
CAS registry number 74–90–8
Physical state Gas
Color Colorless
Solubility in water Miscible
Vapor pressure 807 mm Hg at 27°C
Vapor density(air=1) 0.941
Odor Bitter Almond

Uses

Hydrogen cyanide is used in manufacturing plants for producing nylons, plastics, and fumigants,(National Research Council, 2009). Research has also shown that hydrogen cyanide can serve as a biomarker for detecting Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis (Smith, Spanel, Gilchrist, & Lenney, 2013). Hydrogen cyanide can also be used in the extraction of ores, in electrolytic processes, it can also be used in steel treatment.

Harmful Effects

Hydrogen cyanide is a very toxic gas; its toxicity is due to its competition with oxygen, this leads to inhibition of cytochrome oxidase an enzyme involved in cellular respiration, inhibition of this enzyme prevents cellular utilization of oxygen. Further inhibition in the final step of electron transport in the cells of the brain results in loss of consciousness, respiratory arrest, coma, and death. Symptoms of hydrogen cyanide poisoning occur quickly after exposure; it begins within seconds to minutes. Acute symptoms of HCN poisoning include lightheadedness, giddiness, hyperpnea-due to stimulation of chemoreceptors of the carotid and aortic bodies, vomiting, feeling of constriction in the neck, confusion, restlessness, suffocation, and anxiety. Further acute symptoms include pulmonary edema, abnormal heart rhythm, and respiratory arrest (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). Metabolic acidosis arises from severe exposure to HCN; this is due to a severe increase in the level of lactic acid. Chronic symptoms can be neuropsychiatric, personality changes, memory deficits. People who are exposed to hydrogen cyanide for a long time experience loss of appetite, cyanide rash which is characterized by itching, maculopapular, and vesicular eruptions. A study was carried out among workers associated with the use of hydrogen cyanide; their symptoms are shown in the chart below:

(Dhas, Chitra, Jayakumar, and Mary, 2011)

Management and Prevention

Treatment of patients exposed to Hydrogen cyanide involves, removal of the patient from the exposure, administer oxygen, careful observation, and supportive care is enough if he or she does not show physical signs of HCN poisoning. If a patient shows significant physical signs as mentioned above, antidotes are available, amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, and sodium thiosulfate are antidotes known for hydrogen cyanide toxicity. For people working in industries where hydrogen cyanide is used, it is required that they use personal protective equipment (PPE), these include, mask, safety goggles, overalls, elbow length impervious gloves, and rubber boots. Furthermore, warning labels can also be placed on material that contains hydrogen cyanide.

Hydrogen Sulfide-Definition, Uses, harmful Effects, and Prevention

Definition

Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless, flammable, and extremely dangerous gas. It possesses a rotten egg smell, and it occurs naturally in petroleum and natural gas, it can be produced by the breakdown of organic matter as well as human and animal wastes.  The gas is heavier than air and can be collected in confined places, poorly ventilated areas like basements, sewer lines,  and underground telephone vaults (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d). Hydrogen Sulfide gas is one of the reasons for occupational toxic exposure in the petroleum industry. The clinical effects of this gas depend on the duration and concentration of exposure.

Hydrogen sulfide can be used by manufacturing industries to produce insecticides, leather, dyes, and pharmaceutical products. Other commercial uses of hydrogen sulfide include metalworking, lubricants, chemical warfare (Lee, 2017). Research has also shown that Hydrogen sulfide is the third endogenous signaling gasotransmitter after carbon monoxide and nitric oxide. Because of its effect on the cardiovascular and nervous system, it has been proposed to have significant therapeutic benefits to age-associated diseases (Zhang et al., 20013).

Harmful effects

Hydrogen sulfide is an irritant and a chemical asphyxiant, at different concentrations it elicits a variety of symptoms, at low concentrations, it can cause various respiratory symptoms ranging from rhinitis to acute respiratory failure (Doujaiji & Al-Tawfiq, 2010). Lower concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can cause irritations of the eyes, nose, throat, and the respiratory system, repeated exposures to low concentrations can cause eye inflammation, headache, fatigue, irritability, and insomnia. Moderate concentrations can cause irritability in the eyes and respiratory system, headache, vomiting, staggering, and excitability. At high concentrations, hydrogen sulfide can cause shock, convulsions, apnea, extremely quick unconsciousness, coma, and death (Occupational Safety & Health Administration, n.d). Hydrogen sulfide is also referred to as knockout gas because, at high concentrations, it causes an immediate loss of consciousness and death (Doujaiji & Al-Tawfiq, 2010). Chronic symptoms associated with hydrogen sulfide poisoning include continuous headaches, reduced attention span, memory deficit, and poor motor functions. (OSHA, n.d).

Management and Prevention

The mainstay of therapy for hydrogen sulfide poisoning is supportive care, 100 percent oxygen can also be administered if the patient show symptoms of low concentration exposure. Reports have shown that hyperbaric oxygen, amyl nitrite, and sodium nitrite can also be useful in its treatment. It is understood that nitrites produce methemoglobin which competes with hydrogen sulfide, this allows protection of cytochrome oxidase (Dooujaiji & Al-tawfiq, 2010). Prevention from hydrogen sulfide toxicity is critical. Personal protective equipment should be used, and they include safety glasses, long-sleeved shirts, and respiratory protection. Furthermore, exposure should be limited to the workplace, and a gas detector should be used in order to protect employees from exposure.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this paper reviewed three toxic gases, all of which affect the cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous system. The paper also reviewed the uses of these gases, and at least two can be used for therapeutic purposes. Furthermore, they are mainly used in manufacturing companies. The harmful effects of these gases were also reviewed in this paper; acute symptoms affect the respiratory system, nervous system, and the gastrointestinal system. Long-term effects are mainly associated with memory deficits and personality changes.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health; Hydrogen Cyanide: Systemic Agent. Retrieved on 31 October 2018, from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750038.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). Prevention Guidance: You Can Prevent Carbon Monoxide Exposure. Retrieved on 31 October 2018, from, https://www.cdc.gov/co/guidelines.htm

Dhas, P. K., Chitra, P., Jayakumar, S., & Mary, A. R. (2011). Study of the effects of hydrogen cyanide exposure in Cassava workers. Indian journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 15(3), 133-6.

Doujaiji, B., & Al-Tawfiq, J. A. (2010). Hydrogen sulfide exposure in an adult male. Annals of Saudi medicine, 30(1), 76-80.

Knauert, M., Vangala, S., Haslip, M., & Lee, P. J. (2013). Therapeutic applications of carbon monoxide. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/360815

Lee, K (2017). Uses for Hydrogen Sulfide. Sciencing. Retrieved on 31 October 2018 from https://sciencing.com/uses-hydrogen-sulfide-5515916.html

MedlinePlus.gov (2016). Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. Retrieved on 31 October 2018 fromhttps://medlineplus.gov/carbonmonoxidepoisoning.html

Motterlini, R., & Otterbein, L. E. (2010). The therapeutic potential of carbon monoxide. Nature reviews Drug discovery, 9(9), 728.

National Research Council, & Committee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels. (2009). Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals (Vol. 9). National Academies Press.

Nicki, R. C., Brian, R. W., & Stuart, H. R. (2010). Davidson’s principles and practice of medicine. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.

Occupational Safety & Health Administration (n.d). United States Department of Labor. Hydrogen Sulfide. Retrieved on 31 October 2018 from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/hydrogen_sulfide.html

Rose, J. J., Wang, L., Xu, Q., McTiernan, C. F., Shiva, S., Tejero, J., & Gladwin, M. T. (2017). Carbon monoxide poisoning: pathogenesis, management, and future directions of therapy. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 195(5), 596-606. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201606-1275CI

Safeopedia.com (n.d). Toxic gas. Retrieved on 31 October 2018 from https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/2337/toxic-gas

Scienceclarified.com (2018). Carbon monoxide. Retrieved on 31 October 2018 from http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ca-Ch/Carbon-Monoxide.html

Smith, D., Španěl, P., Gilchrist, F. J., & Lenney, W. (2013). Hydrogen cyanide, a volatile biomarker of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Journal of breath research, 7(4), 044001.

Zhang, Y., Tang, Z. H., Ren, Z., Qu, S. L., Liu, M. H., Liu, L. S., & Jiang, Z. S. (2013). Hydrogen Sulfide: Next Potent Preventive and Therapeutic Agent in Aging and Age-associated Diseases. Molecular and cellular biology, MCB-01215.

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"The terms offer and acceptance." freeessays.club, 17 May 2016

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